The following auditing standard is not the current version and does not reflect any amendments effective on or after December 31, 2016. The current version of the auditing standards can be found  here.

AU Section 508 fn *

Reports on Audited Financial Statements

Supersedes sections 505, 509, 542, 545, and 546)
Source: SAS No. 58; SAS No. 64; SAS No. 79; SAS No. 85; SAS No. 93; SAS No. 98.
See section 9508 for interpretations of this section.
Effective for reports issued or reissued on or after January 1, 1989, unless otherwise indicated.

Introduction

.01

This section applies to auditors' reports issued in connection with audits fn 1 of historical financial statements that are intended to present financial position, results of operations, and cash flows in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. It distinguishes the types of reports, describes the circumstances in which each is appropriate, and provides example reports.

[The following note is effective for audits of fiscal years ending on or after November 15, 2007. See PCAOB Release No. 2007-005A. For audits of fiscal years ending before November 15, 2007, click here.]

Note: When performing an integrated audit of financial statements and internal control over financial reporting, the auditor may choose to issue a combined report or separate reports on the company's financial statements and on internal control over financial reporting. Refer to paragraphs 85-98 of PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 5, An Audit of Internal Control Over Financial Reporting That Is Integrated with An Audit of Financial Statements, and Appendix C, Special Reporting Situations, of PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 5, An Audit of Internal Control Over Financial Reporting That Is Integrated with An Audit of Financial Statements, for direction on reporting on internal control over financial reporting. In addition, see paragraphs 86-88 of PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 5, An Audit of Internal Control Over Financial Reporting That Is Integrated with An Audit of Financial Statements, which includes an illustrative combined audit report.

.02

This section does not apply to unaudited financial statements as described in section 504, Association With Financial Statements, nor does it apply to reports on incomplete financial information or other special presentations as described in section 623, Special Reports.

.03

[The following paragraph is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

Justification for the expression of the auditor's opinion rests on the conformity of his or her audit with generally accepted auditing standards and on the findings. Generally accepted auditing standards include four standards of reporting. This section is concerned primarily with the relationship of the fourth reporting standard to the language of the auditor's report.

.04

The fourth standard of reporting is as follows:

The report shall either contain an expression of opinion regarding the financial statements, taken as a whole, or an assertion to the effect that an opinion cannot be expressed. When an overall opinion cannot be expressed, the reasons therefor should be stated. In all cases where an auditor's name is associated with financial statements, the report should contain a clear-cut indication of the character of the auditor's work, if any, and the degree of responsibility the auditor is taking.

.05

The objective of the fourth standard is to prevent misinterpretation of the degree of responsibility the auditor is assuming when his or her name is associated with financial statements. Reference in the fourth reporting standard to the financial statements "taken as a whole" applies equally to a complete set of financial statements and to an individual financial statement (for example, to a balance sheet) for one or more periods presented. (Paragraph .65 discusses the fourth standard of reporting as it applies to comparative financial statements.) The auditor may express an unqualified opinion on one of the financial statements and express a qualified or adverse opinion or disclaim an opinion on another if the circumstances warrant.

.06

The auditor's report is customarily issued in connection with an entity's basic financial statements—balance sheet, statement of income, statement of retained earnings and statement of cash flows. Each financial statement audited should be specifically identified in the introductory paragraph of the auditor's report. If the basic financial statements include a separate statement of changes in stockholders' equity accounts, it should be identified in the introductory paragraph of the report but need not be reported on separately in the opinion paragraph since such changes are part of the presentation of financial position, results of operations, and cash flows.

The Auditor's Standard Report

.07

The auditor's standard report states that the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, an entity's financial position, results of operations, and cash flows in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. This conclusion may be expressed only when the auditor has formed such an opinion on the basis of an audit performed in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards.

.08

The auditor's standard report identifies the financial statements audited in an opening (introductory) paragraph, describes the nature of an audit in a scope paragraph, and expresses the auditor's opinion in a separate opinion paragraph. The basic elements of the report are the following:

  1. A title that includes the word independent fn 3
  2. A statement that the financial statements identified in the report were audited
  3. A statement that the financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management fn 4 and that the auditor's responsibility is to express an opinion on the financial statements based on his or her audit
  4. A statement that the audit was conducted in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards and an identification of the United States of America as the country of origin of those standards (for example, auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America or U.S. generally accepted auditing standards)
  5. A statement that those standards require that the auditor plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement
  6. A statement that an audit includes—
    (1)Examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements
    (2)Assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management
    (3)Evaluating the overall financial statement presentation fn 5
  7. A statement that the auditor believes that his or her audit provides a reasonable basis for his or her opinion
  8. An opinion as to whether the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of the balance sheet date and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the period then ended in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. The opinion should include an identification of the United States of America as the country of origin of those accounting principles (for example, accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America or U.S. generally accepted accounting principles fn 6 )
  9. The manual or printed signature of the auditor's firm
  10. The date fn 7 of the audit report

    The form of the auditor's standard report on financial statements covering a single year is as follows:

    Independent Auditor's Report

    We have audited the accompanying balance sheet of X Company as of December 31, 20XX, and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the year then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit.

    We conducted our audit in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.

    In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of X Company as of [at] December 31, 20XX, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

    [Signature]

    [Date]

    The form of the auditor's standard report on comparative financial statements fn 8 is as follows:

    Independent Auditor's Report

    We have audited the accompanying balance sheets of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the years then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audits.

    We conducted our audits in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

    In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of X Company as of [at] December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

    [Signature]

    [Date]

  11. When performing an integrated audit of financial statements and internal control over financial reporting, if the auditor issues separate reports on the company's financial statements and on internal control over financial reporting, the following paragraph should be added to the auditor's report on the company's financial statements:

We also have audited, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States), the effectiveness of X Company's internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 20X3, based on [identify control criteria] and our report dated [date of report, which should be the same as the date of the report on the financial statements] expressed [include nature of opinions].

.09

The report may be addressed to the company whose financial statements are being audited or to its board of directors or stockholders. A report on the financial statements of an unincorporated entity should be addressed as circumstances dictate, for example, to the partners, to the general partner, or to the proprietor. Occasionally, an auditor is retained to audit the financial statements of a company that is not a client; in such a case, the report is customarily addressed to the client and not to the directors or stockholders of the company whose financial statements are being audited.

.10

This section also discusses the circumstances that may require the auditor to depart from the standard report and provides reporting guidance in such circumstances. This section is organized by type of opinion that the auditor may express in each of the various circumstances presented; this section describes what is meant by the various audit opinions:

  • Unqualified opinion. An unqualified opinion states that the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position, results of operations, and cash flows of the entity in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. This is the opinion expressed in the standard report discussed in paragraph .08.
  • Explanatory language added to the auditor's standard report. Certain circumstances, while not affecting the auditor's unqualified opinion on the financial statements, may require that the auditor add an explanatory paragraph (or other explanatory language) to his or her report.
  • Qualified opinion. A qualified opinion states that, except for the effects of the matter(s) to which the qualification relates, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position, results of operations, and cash flows of the entity in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles.
  • Adverse opinion. An adverse opinion states that the financial statements do not present fairly the financial position, results of operations, or cash flows of the entity in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles.
  • Disclaimer of opinion. A disclaimer of opinion states that the auditor does not express an opinion on the financial statements.

These opinions are discussed in greater detail throughout the remainder of this section.

Explanatory Language Added to the Auditor's Standard Report

.11

Certain circumstances, while not affecting the auditor's unqualified opinion, may require that the auditor add an explanatory fn 9 paragraph (or other explanatory language) to the standard report. fn 10 These circumstances include:

  1. The auditor's opinion is based in part on the report of another auditor (paragraphs .12 and .13).
    [Items .11b, c, and d are effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the items effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]
  2. There is substantial doubt about the entity's ability to continue as a going concern. fn 11
  3. There has been a material change between periods in accounting principles or in the method of their application (paragraphs .17A through .17E).
  4. A material misstatement in previously issued financial statements has been corrected (paragraphs .18A through .18C).
  5. Certain circumstances relating to reports on comparative financial statements exist (paragraphs .68, .69, and .72 through .74).
  6. Selected quarterly financial data required by SEC Regulation S-K has been omitted or has not been reviewed. (See section 722, Interim Financial Information, paragraph .50.)
  7. Supplementary information required by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB), or the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) has been omitted, the presentation of such information departs materially from FASB, GASB, or FASAB guidelines, the auditor is unable to complete prescribed procedures with respect to such information, or the auditor is unable to remove substantial doubts about whether the supplementary information conforms to FASB, GASB, or FASAB guidelines. (See section 558, Required Supplementary Information, paragraph .02.)
  8. Other information in a document containing audited financial statements is materially inconsistent with information appearing in the financial statements. (See section 550, Other Information in Documents Containing Audited Financial Statements, paragraph .04.)

In addition, the auditor may add an explanatory paragraph to emphasize a matter regarding the financial statements (paragraph .19). [As amended, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79. Revised, November 2002, to reflect conforming changes necessary due to the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 100.]

Opinion Based in Part on Report of Another Auditor

.12

When the auditor decides to make reference to the report of another auditor as a basis, in part, for his or her opinion, he or she should disclose this fact in the introductory paragraph of his or her report and should refer to the report of the other auditor in expressing his or her opinion. These references indicate division of responsibility for performance of the audit. (See section 543, Part of Audit Performed by Other Independent Auditors.)

.13

An example of a report indicating a division of responsibility follows:

Independent Auditor's Report

We have audited the consolidated balance sheets of ABC Company and subsidiaries as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the related consolidated statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the years then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audits. We did not audit the financial statements of B Company, a wholly-owned subsidiary, which statements reflect total assets of $_______ and $________ as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, respectively, and total revenues of $_______ and $_______ for the years then ended. Those statements were audited by other auditors whose report has been furnished to us, and our opinion, insofar as it relates to the amounts included for B Company, is based solely on the report of the other auditors.

We conducted our audits in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audits and the report of other auditors provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

In our opinion, based on our audits and the report of other auditors, the consolidated financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of ABC Company and subsidiaries as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of their operations and their cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

[.14-.15]

[Paragraphs .14 and .15 deleted, effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). Click here to view the paragraphs.]

Lack of Consistency

.16

[The following paragraph is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

The auditor should recognize the following matters relating to the consistency of the company's financial statements in the auditor's report if those matters have a material effect on the financial statements:

  1. A change in accounting principle.
  2. An adjustment to correct a misstatement in previously issued financial statements.

Change in Accounting Principle

[Paragraphs 17A through 17E are effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

.17A

As discussed in PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 6, Evaluating Consistency of Financial Statements, the auditor should evaluate a change in accounting principle to determine whether (1) the newly adopted accounting principle is a generally accepted accounting principle, (2) the method of accounting for the effect of the change is in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles, (3) the disclosures related to the accounting change are adequate, and (4) the company has justified that the alternative accounting principle is preferable.fn 12 A change in accounting principle that has a material effect on the financial statements should be recognized in the auditor's report on the audited financial statements through the addition of an explanatory paragraph following the opinion paragraph. If the auditor concludes that the criteria in this paragraph have been met, the explanatory paragraph in the auditor's report should include identification of the nature of the change and a reference to the note disclosure describing the change.

.17B

Following is an example of an explanatory paragraph for a change in accounting principle resulting from the adoption of a new accounting pronouncement:

As discussed in Note X to the financial statements, the company has changed its method of accounting for [describe accounting method change] in [year(s) of financial statements that reflect the accounting method change] due to the adoption of [name of accounting pronouncement].

.17C

Following is an example of an explanatory paragraph when the company has made a change in accounting principle other than a change due to the adoption of a new accounting pronouncement:

As discussed in Note X to the financial statements, the company has elected to change its method of accounting for [describe accounting method change] in [year(s) of financial statements that reflect the accounting method change].

.17D

The explanatory paragraph relating to a change in accounting principle should be included in reports on financial statements in the year of the change and in subsequent years until the new accounting principle is applied in all periods presented. If the accounting change is accounted for by retrospective application to the financial statements of all prior periods presented, the additional paragraph is needed only in the year of the change.

.17E

If the auditor concludes that the criteria in paragraph .17A for a change in accounting principle are not met, the auditor should consider the matter to be a departure from generally accepted accounting principles and, if the effect of the change in accounting principle is material, issue a qualified or adverse opinion.

[Paragraphs .18A through .18C are effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

Correction of a Material Misstatement in Previously Issued Financial Statements

.18A

Correction of a material misstatement in previously issued financial statements should be recognized in the auditor's report through the addition of an explanatory paragraph following the opinion paragraph.fn 13 The explanatory paragraph should include (1) a statement that the previously issued financial statements have been restated for the correction of a misstatement in the respective period and (2) a reference to the company's disclosure of the correction of the misstatement. Following is an example of an appropriate explanatory paragraph when there has been a correction of a material misstatement in previously issued financial statements.

As discussed in Note X to the financial statements, the 20X2 financial statements have been restated to correct a misstatement.

.18B

This type of explanatory paragraph in the auditor's report should be included in reports on financial statements when the related financial statements are restated to correct the prior material misstatement. The paragraph need not be repeated in subsequent years.

.18C

[The following paragraph is effective for audits of fiscal years beginning on or after December 15, 2010. See PCAOB Release No. 2010-004. For audits of fiscal years beginning before December 15, 2010, click here.]

The accounting pronouncements generally require certain disclosures relating to restatements to correct a misstatement in previously issued financial statements. If the financial statement disclosures are not adequate, the auditor should address the lack of disclosure as discussed beginning at paragraph .41.

Emphasis of a Matter

.19

In any report on financial statements, the auditor may emphasize a matter regarding the financial statements. Such explanatory information should be presented in a separate paragraph of the auditor's report. Phrases such as "with the foregoing [following] explanation" should not be used in the opinion paragraph if an emphasis paragraph is included in the auditor's report. Emphasis paragraphs are never required; they may be added solely at the auditor's discretion. Examples of matters the auditor may wish to emphasize are—

  • That the entity is a component of a larger business enterprise.
  • That the entity has had significant transactions with related parties.
  • Unusually important subsequent events.
  • Accounting matters, other than those involving a change or changes in accounting principles, affecting the comparability of the financial statements with those of the preceding period.

Departures From Unqualified Opinions

Qualified Opinions

.20

Certain circumstances may require a qualified opinion. A qualified opinion states that, except for the effects of the matter to which the qualification relates, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, financial position, results of operations, and cash flows in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. Such an opinion is expressed when—

[The following subparagraph is effective for audits of fiscal years beginning on or after December 15, 2010. See PCAOB Release No. 2010-004. For audits of fiscal years beginning before December 15, 2010, click here.]
  1. There is a lack of sufficient appropriate evidential matter or there are restrictions on the scope of the audit that have led the auditor to conclude that he or she cannot express an unqualified opinion and he or she has concluded not to disclaim an opinion (paragraphs .22-.34).
  2. The auditor believes, on the basis of his or her audit, that the financial statements contain a departure from generally accepted accounting principles, the effect of which is material, and he or she has concluded not to express an adverse opinion (paragraphs .35-.57).

.21

When the auditor expresses a qualified opinion, he or she should disclose all of the substantive reasons in one or more separate explanatory paragraph(s) preceding the opinion paragraph of the report. The auditor should also include, in the opinion paragraph, the appropriate qualifying language and a reference to the explanatory paragraph. A qualified opinion should include the word except or exception in a phrase such as except for or with the exception of. Phrases such as subject to and with the foregoing explanation are not clear or forceful enough and should not be used. Since accompanying notes are part of the financial statements, wording such as fairly presented, in all material respects, when read in conjunction with Note 1 is likely to be misunderstood and should not be used. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

Scope Limitations

.22

[The following paragraph is effective for audits of fiscal years beginning on or after December 15, 2010. See PCAOB Release No. 2010-004. For audits of fiscal years beginning before December 15, 2010, click here.]

The auditor can determine that he or she is able to express an unqualified opinion only if the audit has been conducted in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards and if he or she has therefore been able to apply all the procedures he considers necessary in the circumstances. Restrictions on the scope of the audit, whether imposed by the client or by circumstances, such as the timing of his or her work, the inability to obtain sufficient appropriate evidential matter, or an inadequacy in the accounting records, may require the auditor to qualify his or her opinion or to disclaim an opinion. In such instances, the reasons for the auditor's qualification of opinion or disclaimer of opinion should be described in the report.

.23

The auditor's decision to qualify his or her opinion or disclaim an opinion because of a scope limitation depends on his or her assessment of the importance of the omitted procedure(s) to his or her ability to form an opinion on the financial statements being audited. This assessment will be affected by the nature and magnitude of the potential effects of the matters in question and by their significance to the financial statements. If the potential effects relate to many financial statement items, this significance is likely to be greater than if only a limited number of items is involved. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.24

[The following paragraph is effective for audits of fiscal years beginning on or after December 15, 2010. See PCAOB Release No. 2010-004. For audits of fiscal years beginning before December 15, 2010, click here.]

Common restrictions on the scope of the audit include those applying to the observation of physical inventories and the confirmation of accounts receivable by direct communication with debtors. fn 14 Another common scope restriction involves accounting for long-term investments when the auditor has not been able to obtain audited financial statements of an investee. Restrictions on the application of these or other audit procedures to important elements of the financial statements require the auditor to decide whether he or she has examined sufficient appropriate evidential matter to permit him or her to express an unqualified or qualified opinion, or whether he or she should disclaim an opinion. When restrictions that significantly limit the scope of the audit are imposed by the client, ordinarily the auditor should disclaim an opinion on the financial statements.

.25

When a qualified opinion results from a limitation on the scope of the audit or an insufficiency of evidential matter, the situation should be described in an explanatory paragraph preceding the opinion paragraph and referred to in both the scope and opinion paragraphs of the auditor's report. It is not appropriate for the scope of the audit to be explained in a note to the financial statements, since the description of the audit scope is the responsibility of the auditor and not that of the client. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.26

When an auditor qualifies his or her opinion because of a scope limitation, the wording in the opinion paragraph should indicate that the qualification pertains to the possible effects on the financial statements and not to the scope limitation itself. Wording such as "In our opinion, except for the above-mentioned limitation on the scope of our audit . . ." bases the exception on the restriction itself, rather than on the possible effects on the financial statements and, therefore, is unacceptable. An example of a qualified opinion related to a scope limitation concerning an investment in a foreign affiliate (assuming the effects of the limitation are such that the auditor has concluded that a disclaimer of opinion is not appropriate) follows:

Independent Auditor's Report

[Same first paragraph as the standard report]

Except as discussed in the following paragraph, we conducted our audits in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

We were unable to obtain audited financial statements supporting the Company's investment in a foreign affiliate stated at $_______ and $_______ at December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, respectively, or its equity in earnings of that affiliate of $_______ and $_______, which is included in net income for the years then ended as described in Note X to the financial statements; nor were we able to satisfy ourselves as to the carrying value of the investment in the foreign affiliate or the equity in its earnings by other auditing procedures.

In our opinion, except for the effects of such adjustments, if any, as might have been determined to be necessary had we been able to examine evidence regarding the foreign affiliate investment and earnings, the financial statements referred to in the first paragraph above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.27

Other scope limitations. Sometimes, notes to financial statements may contain unaudited information, such as pro forma calculations or other similar disclosures. If the unaudited information (for example, an investor's share, material in amount, of an investee's earnings recognized on the equity method) is such that it should be subjected to auditing procedures in order for the auditor to form an opinion with respect to the financial statements taken as a whole, the auditor should apply the procedures he or she deems necessary to the unaudited information. If the auditor has not been able to apply the procedures he or she considers necessary, the auditor should qualify his or her opinion or disclaim an opinion because of a limitation on the scope of the audit. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.28

If, however, these disclosures are not necessary to fairly present the financial position, operating results, or cash flows on which the auditor is reporting, such disclosures may be identified as unaudited or as not covered by the auditor's report. For example, the pro forma effects of a business combination or of a subsequent event may be labelled unaudited. Therefore, while the event or transaction giving rise to the disclosures in these circumstances should be audited, the pro forma disclosures of that event or transaction would not be. The auditor should be aware, however, that section 530, Dating of the Independent Auditor's Report, states that, if the auditor is aware of a material subsequent event that has occurred after the completion of fieldwork but before issuance of the report that should be disclosed, the auditor's only options are to dual date the report or date the report as of the date of the subsequent event and extend the procedures for review of subsequent events to that date. Labelling the note unaudited is not an acceptable alternative in these circumstances. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.29

Uncertainties and scope limitations. A matter involving an uncertainty is one that is expected to be resolved at a future date, at which time conclusive evidential matter concerning its outcome would be expected to become available. Uncertainties include, but are not limited to, contingencies covered by Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 5, Accounting for Contingencies, and matters related to estimates covered by Statement of Position 94-6, Disclosure of Certain Significant Risks and Uncertainties. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.30

Conclusive evidential matter concerning the ultimate outcome of uncertainties cannot be expected to exist at the time of the audit because the outcome and related evidential matter are prospective. In these circumstances, management is responsible for estimating the effect of future events on the financial statements, or determining that a reasonable estimate cannot be made and making the required disclosures, all in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, based on management's analysis of existing conditions. An audit includes an assessment of whether the evidential matter is sufficient to support management's analysis. Absence of the existence of information related to the outcome of an uncertainty does not necessarily lead to a conclusion that the evidential matter supporting management's assertion is not sufficient. Rather, the auditor's judgment regarding the sufficiency of the evidential matter is based on the evidential matter that is, or should be, available. If, after considering the existing conditions and available evidence, the auditor concludes that sufficient evidential matter supports management's assertions about the nature of a matter involving an uncertainty and its presentation or disclosure in the financial statements, an unqualified opinion ordinarily is appropriate. [Paragraph added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.31

If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient evidential matter to support management's assertions about the nature of a matter involving an uncertainty and its presentation or disclosure in the financial statements, the auditor should consider the need to express a qualified opinion or to disclaim an opinion because of a scope limitation. A qualification or disclaimer of opinion because of a scope limitation is appropriate if sufficient evidential matter related to an uncertainty does or did exist but was not available to the auditor for reasons such as management's record retention policies or a restriction imposed by management. [Paragraph added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.32

Scope limitations related to uncertainties should be differentiated from situations in which the auditor concludes that the financial statements are materially misstated due to departures from generally accepted accounting principles related to uncertainties. Such departures may be caused by inadequate disclosure concerning the uncertainty, the use of inappropriate accounting principles, or the use of unreasonable accounting estimates. Paragraphs .45 to .49 provide guidance to the auditor when financial statements contain departures from generally accepted accounting principles related to uncertainties. [Paragraph added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.33

Limited reporting engagements. The auditor may be asked to report on one basic financial statement and not on the others. For example, he or she may be asked to report on the balance sheet and not on the statements of income, retained earnings or cash flows. These engagements do not involve scope limitations if the auditor's access to information underlying the basic financial statements is not limited and if the auditor applies all the procedures he considers necessary in the circumstances; rather, such engagements involve limited reporting objectives. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.34

An auditor may be asked to report on the balance sheet only. In this case, the auditor may express an opinion on the balance sheet only. An example of an unqualified opinion on a balance-sheet-only audit follows (the report assumes that the auditor has been able to satisfy himself or herself regarding the consistency of application of accounting principles):

Independent Auditor's Report

We have audited the accompanying balance sheet of X Company as of December 31, 20XX. This financial statement is the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on this financial statement based on our audit.

We conducted our audit in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the balance sheet is free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the balance sheet. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall balance sheet presentation. We believe that our audit of the balance sheet provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.

In our opinion, the balance sheet referred to above presents fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of X Company as of December 31, 20XX, in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

Departure From a Generally Accepted Accounting Principle

.35

When financial statements are materially affected by a departure from generally accepted accounting principles and the auditor has audited the statements in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards, he or she should express a qualified (paragraphs .36 through .57) or an adverse (paragraphs .58 through .60) opinion. The basis for such opinion should be stated in the report. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.36

In deciding whether the effects of a departure from generally accepted accounting principles are sufficiently material to require either a qualified or adverse opinion, one factor to be considered is the dollar magnitude of such effects. However, the concept of materiality does not depend entirely on relative size; it involves qualitative as well as quantitative judgments. The significance of an item to a particular entity (for example, inventories to a manufacturing company), the pervasiveness of the misstatement (such as whether it affects the amounts and presentation of numerous financial statement items), and the effect of the misstatement on the financial statements taken as a whole are all factors to be considered in making a judgment regarding materiality. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.37

When the auditor expresses a qualified opinion, he or she should disclose, in a separate explanatory paragraph(s) preceding the opinion paragraph of the report, all of the substantive reasons that have led him or her to conclude that there has been a departure from generally accepted accounting principles. Furthermore, the opinion paragraph of the report should include the appropriate qualifying language and a reference to the explanatory paragraph(s). [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.38

The explanatory paragraph(s) should also disclose the principal effects of the subject matter of the qualification on financial position, results of operations, and cash flows, if practicable. fn 15 If the effects are not reasonably determinable, the report should so state. If such disclosures are made in a note to the financial statements, the explanatory paragraph(s) may be shortened by referring to it. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.39

An example of a report in which the opinion is qualified because of the use of an accounting principle at variance with generally accepted accounting principles follows (assuming the effects are such that the auditor has concluded that an adverse opinion is not appropriate):

Independent Auditor's Report

[Same first and second paragraphs as the standard report]

The Company has excluded, from property and debt in the accompanying balance sheets, certain lease obligations that, in our opinion, should be capitalized in order to conform with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America. If these lease obligations were capitalized, property would be increased by $_______ and $_______, long-term debt by $_______ and $_______, and retained earnings by $_______ and $_______ as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, respectively. Additionally, net income would be increased (decreased) by $_______ and $_______ and earnings per share would be increased (decreased) by $_______ and $_______, respectively, for the years then ended.

In our opinion, except for the effects of not capitalizing certain lease obligations as discussed in the preceding paragraph, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.40

If the pertinent facts are disclosed in a note to the financial statements, a separate paragraph (preceding the opinion paragraph) of the auditor's report in the circumstances illustrated in paragraph .39 might read as follows:

As more fully described in Note X to the financial statements, the Company has excluded certain lease obligations from property and debt in the accompanying balance sheets. In our opinion, accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America require that such obligations be included in the balance sheets.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.41

Inadequate disclosure. Information essential for a fair presentation in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles should be set forth in the financial statements (which include the related notes). When such information is set forth elsewhere in a report to shareholders, or in a prospectus, proxy statement, or other similar report, it should be referred to in the financial statements. If the financial statements, including accompanying notes, fail to disclose information that is required by generally accepted accounting principles, the auditor should express a qualified or adverse opinion because of the departure from those principles and should provide the information in the report, if practicable, fn 16 unless its omission from the auditor's report is recognized as appropriate by a specific Statement on Auditing Standards. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.42

Following is an example of a report qualified for inadequate disclosure (assuming the effects are such that the auditor has concluded an adverse opinion is not appropriate):

Independent Auditor's Report

[Same first and second paragraphs as the standard report]

The Company's financial statements do not disclose [describe the nature of the omitted disclosures]. In our opinion, disclosure of this information is required by accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

In our opinion, except for the omission of the information discussed in the preceding paragraph, . . .

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.43

If a company issues financial statements that purport to present financial position and results of operations but omits the related statement of cash flows, the auditor will normally conclude that the omission requires qualification of his opinion. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.44

The auditor is not required to prepare a basic financial statement (for example, a statement of cash flows for one or more periods) and include it in the report if the company's management declines to present the statement. Accordingly, in these cases, the auditor should ordinarily qualify the report in the following manner:

Independent Auditor's Report

We have audited the accompanying balance sheets of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the related statements of income and retained earnings for the years then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit.

[Same second paragraph as the standard report]

The Company declined to present a statement of cash flows for the years ended December 31, 20X2 and 20X1. Presentation of such statement summarizing the Company's operating, investing, and financing activities is required by accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

In our opinion, except that the omission of a statement of cash flows results in an incomplete presentation as explained in the preceding paragraph, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of its operations for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.45

Departures from generally accepted accounting principles involving risks or uncertainties, and materiality considerations. Departures from generally accepted accounting principles involving risks or uncertainties generally fall into one of the following categories:

  • Inadequate disclosure (paragraphs .46 and .47)
  • Inappropriate accounting principles (paragraph .48)
  • Unreasonable accounting estimates (paragraph .49)

[Paragraph added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.46

If the auditor concludes that a matter involving a risk or an uncertainty is not adequately disclosed in the financial statements in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles, the auditor should express a qualified or an adverse opinion. [Paragraph added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.47

The auditor should consider materiality in evaluating the adequacy of disclosure of matters involving risks or uncertainties in the financial statements in the context of the financial statements taken as a whole. The auditor's consideration of materiality is a matter of professional judgment and is influenced by his or her perception of the needs of a reasonable person who will rely on the financial statements. Materiality judgments involving risks or uncertainties are made in light of the surrounding circumstances. The auditor evaluates the materiality of reasonably possible losses that may be incurred upon the resolution of uncertainties both individually and in the aggregate. The auditor performs the evaluation of reasonably possible losses without regard to his or her evaluation of the materiality of known and likely misstatements in the financial statements. [Paragraph added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.48

In preparing financial statements, management estimates the outcome of certain types of future events. For example, estimates ordinarily are made about the useful lives of depreciable assets, the collectibility of accounts receivable, the realizable value of inventory items, and the provision for product warranties. FASB Statement No. 5, Accounting for Contingencies, paragraphs 23 and 25, describes situations in which the inability to make a reasonable estimate may raise questions about the appropriateness of the accounting principles used. If, in those or other situations, the auditor concludes that the accounting principles used cause the financial statements to be materially misstated, he or she should express a qualified or an adverse opinion. [Paragraph added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.49

[The following paragraph is effective for audits of fiscal years beginning on or after December 15, 2010. See PCAOB Release No. 2010-004. For audits of fiscal years beginning before December 15, 2010, click here.]

Usually, the auditor is able to satisfy himself or herself regarding the reasonableness of management's estimate of the effects of future events by considering various types of evidential matter, including the historical experience of the entity. If the auditor concludes that management's estimate is unreasonable (see paragraph 13 of Auditing Standard No. 14, Evaluating Audit Results) and that its effect is to cause the financial statements to be materially misstated, he or she should express a qualified or an adverse opinion

[.50]

[Paragraph deleted, effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). Click here to view the paragraph.] 

.51

[The following paragraph is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

Departures from generally accepted accounting principles related to changes in accounting principle. Paragraph .17A states the criteria for evaluating a change in accounting principle. If the auditor concludes that the criteria have not been met, he or she should consider that circumstance to be a departure from generally accepted accounting principles and, if the effect of the accounting change is material, should issue a qualified or adverse opinion.

.52

[The following paragraph is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

The accounting standards indicate that a company may make a change in accounting principle only if it justifies that the allowable alternative accounting principle is preferable. If the company does not provide reasonable justification that the alternative accounting principle is preferable, the auditor should consider the accounting change to be a departure from generally accepted accounting principles and, if the effect of the change in accounting principle is material, should issue a qualified or adverse opinion. The following is an example of a report qualified because a company did not provide reasonable justification that an alternative accounting principle is preferable:

Independent Auditor's Report

[Same first and second paragraphs as the standard report]

As disclosed in Note X to the financial statements, the Company adopted, in 20X2, the first-in, first-out method of accounting for its inventories, whereas it previously used the last-in, first-out method. Although use of the first-in, first-out method is in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America, in our opinion the Company has not provided reasonable justification that this accounting principle is preferable as required by those principles.fn 17

In our opinion, except for the change in accounting principle discussed in the preceding paragraph, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.53

Whenever an accounting change results in an auditor expressing a qualified or adverse opinion on the conformity of financial statements with generally accepted accounting principles for the year of change, the auditor should consider the possible effects of that change when reporting on the entity's financial statements for subsequent years, as discussed in paragraphs .54 through .57. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.54

If the financial statements for the year of such change are presented and reported on with a subsequent year's financial statements, the auditor's report should disclose his or her reservations with respect to the statements for the year of change. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.55

If an entity has adopted an accounting principle that is not a generally accepted accounting principle, its continued use might have a material effect on the statements of a subsequent year on which the auditor is reporting. In this situation, the independent auditor should express either a qualified opinion or an adverse opinion, depending on the materiality of the departure in relation to the statements of the subsequent year. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.56

If an entity accounts for the effect of a change prospectively when generally accepted accounting principles require restatement or the inclusion of the cumulative effect of the change in the year of change, a subsequent year's financial statements could improperly include a charge or credit that is material to those statements. This situation also requires that the auditor express a qualified or an adverse opinion. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.57

[The following paragraph is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

If the auditor issues a qualified or adverse opinion because the company has not justified that an allowable accounting principle adopted in an accounting change is preferable, as described in paragraph .52, the auditor should continue to express that opinion on the financial statements for the year of change as long as those financial statements are presented and reported on. However, the auditor's qualified or adverse opinion relates only to the accounting change and does not affect the status of a newly adopted principle as a generally accepted accounting principle. Accordingly, while expressing a qualified or adverse opinion for the year of change, the independent auditor's opinion regarding the subsequent years' statements need not express a qualified or adverse opinion on the use of the newly adopted principle in subsequent periods.

Adverse Opinions

.58

An adverse opinion states that the financial statements do not present fairly the financial position or the results of operations or cash flows in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. Such an opinion is expressed when, in the auditor's judgment, the financial statements taken as a whole are not presented fairly in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.59

When the auditor expresses an adverse opinion, he or she should disclose in a separate explanatory paragraph(s) preceding the opinion paragraph of the report (a) all the substantive reasons for his or her adverse opinion, and (b) the principal effects of the subject matter of the adverse opinion on financial position, results of operations, and cash flows, if practicable. fn 18 If the effects are not reasonably determinable, the report should so state. fn 19 [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.60

When an adverse opinion is expressed, the opinion paragraph should include a direct reference to a separate paragraph that discloses the basis for the adverse opinion, as shown below:

Independent Auditor's Report

[Same first and second paragraphs as the standard report]

As discussed in Note X to the financial statements, the Company carries its property, plant and equipment accounts at appraisal values, and provides depreciation on the basis of such values. Further, the Company does not provide for income taxes with respect to differences between financial income and taxable income arising because of the use, for income tax purposes, of the installment method of reporting gross profit from certain types of sales. Accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America require that property, plant and equipment be stated at an amount not in excess of cost, reduced by depreciation based on such amount, and that deferred income taxes be provided.

Because of the departures from accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America identified above, as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, inventories have been increased $_______ and $_______ by inclusion in manufacturing overhead of depreciation in excess of that based on cost; property, plant and equipment, less accumulated depreciation, is carried at $_______ and $_______ in excess of an amount based on the cost to the Company; and deferred income taxes of $_______ and $_______ have not been recorded; resulting in an increase of $_______ and $_______ in retained earnings and in appraisal surplus of $_______ and $_______, respectively. For the years ended December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, cost of goods sold has been increased $_______ and $_______, respectively, because of the effects of the depreciation accounting referred to above and deferred income taxes of $_______ and $_______ have not been provided, resulting in an increase in net income of $_______ and $_______, respectively.

In our opinion, because of the effects of the matters discussed in the preceding paragraphs, the financial statements referred to above do not present fairly, in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America, the financial position of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, or the results of its operations or its cash flows for the years then ended.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

Disclaimer of Opinion

.61

A disclaimer of opinion states that the auditor does not express an opinion on the financial statements. An auditor may decline to express an opinion whenever he or she is unable to form or has not formed an opinion as to the fairness of presentation of the financial statements in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. If the auditor disclaims an opinion, the auditor's report should give all of the substantive reasons for the disclaimer. [Paragraph renumbered and amended, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.62

A disclaimer is appropriate when the auditor has not performed an audit sufficient in scope to enable him or her to form an opinion on the financial statements. fn 20 A disclaimer of opinion should not be expressed because the auditor believes, on the basis of his or her audit, that there are material departures from generally accepted accounting principles (see paragraphs .35 through .57). When disclaiming an opinion because of a scope limitation, the auditor should state in a separate paragraph or paragraphs all of the substantive reasons for the disclaimer. He or she should state that the scope of the audit was not sufficient to warrant the expression of an opinion. The auditor should not identify the procedures that were performed nor include the paragraph describing the characteristics of an audit (that is, the scope paragraph of the auditor's standard report); to do so may tend to overshadow the disclaimer. In addition, the auditor should also disclose any other reservations he or she has regarding fair presentation in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. [Paragraph renumbered and amended, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.63

[The following paragraph is effective for audits of fiscal years beginning on or after December 15, 2010. See PCAOB Release No. 2010-004. For audits of fiscal years beginning before December 15, 2010, click here.]

An example of a report disclaiming an opinion resulting from an inability to obtain sufficient appropriate evidential matter because of the scope limitation follows:

Independent Auditor's Report

We were engaged to audit the accompanying balance sheets of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the years then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. fn 21

[Second paragraph of standard report should be omitted]

The Company did not make a count of its physical inventory in 20X2 or 20X1, stated in the accompanying financial statements at $_______ as of December 31, 20X2, and at $________ as of December 31, 20X1. Further, evidence supporting the cost of property and equipment acquired prior to December 31, 20X1, is no longer available. The Company's records do not permit the application of other auditing procedures to inventories or property and equipment.

Since the Company did not take physical inventories and we were not able to apply other auditing procedures to satisfy ourselves as to inventory quantities and the cost of property and equipment, the scope of our work was not sufficient to enable us to express, and we do not express, an opinion on these financial statements.

Piecemeal Opinions

.64

Piecemeal opinions (expressions of opinion as to certain identified items in financial statements) should not be expressed when the auditor has disclaimed an opinion or has expressed an adverse opinion on the financial statements taken as a whole because piecemeal opinions tend to overshadow or contradict a disclaimer of opinion or an adverse opinion. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

Reports on Comparative Financial Statements

.65

The fourth standard of reporting requires that an auditor's report contain either an expression of opinion regarding the financial statements taken as a whole or an assertion to the effect that an opinion cannot be expressed. Reference in the fourth reporting standard to the financial statements taken as a whole applies not only to the financial statements of the current period but also to those of one or more prior periods that are presented on a comparative basis with those of the current period. Therefore, a continuing auditor fn 22 should update fn 23 the report on the individual financial statements of the one or more prior periods presented on a comparative basis with those of the current period. fn 24 Ordinarily, the auditor's report on comparative financial statements should be dated as of the date of completion of fieldwork for the most recent audit. (See section 530, Dating of the Independent Auditor's Report, paragraph .01.) [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. As amended, effective September 2002, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 98.]

.66

[The following paragraph is effective for audits of fiscal years beginning on or after December 15, 2010. See PCAOB Release No. 2010-004. For audits of fiscal years beginning before December 15, 2010, click here.]

During the audit of the current-period financial statements, the auditor should be alert for circumstances or events that affect the prior-period financial statements presented (see paragraph .68) or the adequacy of informative disclosures concerning those statements. (See paragraph 31 of Auditing Standard No. 14, Evaluating Audit Results.) In updating his or her report on the prior-period financial statements, the auditor should consider the effects of any such circumstances or events coming to his or her attention.

Different Reports on Comparative Financial Statements Presented

.67

Since the auditor's report on comparative financial statements applies to the individual financial statements presented, an auditor may express a qualified or adverse opinion, disclaim an opinion, or include an explanatory paragraph with respect to one or more financial statements for one or more periods, while issuing a different report on the other financial statements presented. Following are examples of reports on comparative financial statements (excluding the standard introductory and scope paragraphs, where applicable) with different reports on one or more financial statements presented.

Standard Report on the Prior-Year Financial Statements and a Qualified Opinion on the Current-Year Financial Statements

Independent Auditor's Report

[Same first and second paragraphs as the standard report]

The Company has excluded, from property and debt in the accompanying 20X2 balance sheet, certain lease obligations that were entered into in 20X2 which, in our opinion, should be capitalized in order to conform with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America. If these lease obligations were capitalized, property would be increased by $_______, long-term debt by $_______, and retained earnings by $_______ as of December 31, 20X2, and net income and earnings per share would be increased (decreased) by $_______ and $_______, respectively, for the year then ended.

In our opinion, except for the effects on the 20X2 financial statements of not capitalizing certain lease obligations as described in the preceding paragraph, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of ABC Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

Standard Report on the Current-Year Financial Statements With a Disclaimer of Opinion on the Prior-Year Statements of Income, Retained Earnings, and Cash Flows

Independent Auditor's Report

[Same first paragraph as the standard report]

Except as explained in the following paragraph, we conducted our audits in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America. Those standards require that we plan and perform our audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

We did not observe the taking of the physical inventory as of December 31, 20X0, since that date was prior to our appointment as auditors for the Company, and we were unable to satisfy ourselves regarding inventory quantities by means of other auditing procedures. Inventory amounts as of December 31, 20X0, enter into the determination of net income and cash flows for the year ended December 31, 20X1. fn 25

Because of the matter discussed in the preceding paragraph, the scope of our work was not sufficient to enable us to express, and we do not express, an opinion on the results of operations and cash flows for the year ended December 31, 20X1.

In our opinion, the balance sheets of ABC Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the year ended December 31, 20X2, present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of ABC Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year ended December 31, 20X2, in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

Opinion on Prior-Period Financial Statements Different From the Opinion Previously Expressed

.68

If, during the current audit, an auditor becomes aware of circumstances or events that affect the financial statements of a prior period, he or she should consider such matters when updating his or her report on the financial statements of the prior period. For example, if an auditor has previously qualified his or her opinion or expressed an adverse opinion on financial statements of a prior period because of a departure from generally accepted accounting principles, and the prior-period financial statements are restated in the current period to conform with generally accepted accounting principles, the auditor's updated report on the financial statements of the prior period should indicate that the statements have been restated and should express an unqualified opinion with respect to the restated financial statements. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

.69

[The following paragraph is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

If, in an updated report, the opinion is different from the opinion previously expressed on the financial statements of a prior period, the auditor should disclose all the substantive reasons for the different opinion in a separate explanatory paragraph(s) preceding the opinion paragraph of his or her report.[fn 29] The explanatory paragraph(s) should disclose (a) the date of the auditor's previous report, (b) the type of opinion previously expressed, (c) if applicable, a statement that the previously issued financial statements have been restated for the correction of a misstatement in the respective period, (d) the circumstances or events that caused the auditor to express a different opinion, and (e) if applicable, a reference to the company's disclosure of the correction of the misstatement, and (f) the fact that the auditor's updated opinion on the financial statements of the prior period is different from his or her previous opinion on those statements. The following is an example of an explanatory paragraph that may be appropriate when an auditor issues an updated report on the financial statements of a prior period that contains an opinion different from the opinion previously expressed:

Independent Auditor's Report

[Same first and second paragraphs as the standard report]

In our report dated March 1, 20X2, we expressed an opinion that the 20X1 financial statements did not fairly present financial position, results of operations, and cash flows in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America because of two departures from such principles: (1) the Company carried its property, plant, and equipment at appraisal values, and provided for depreciation on the basis of such values, and (2) the Company did not provide for deferred income taxes with respect to differences between income for financial reporting purposes and taxable income. As described in Note X, the Company has changed its method of accounting for these items and restated its 20X1 financial statements to conform with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America. Accordingly, our present opinion on the 20X1 financial statements, as presented herein, is different from that expressed in our previous report. fn 26

In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of X Company as of December 31, 20X2 and 20X1, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

[Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

Report of Predecessor Auditor

.70

A predecessor auditor ordinarily would be in a position to reissue his or her report on the financial statements of a prior period at the request of a former client if he or she is able to make satisfactory arrangements with the former client to perform this service and if he or she performs the procedures described in paragraph .71. fn 27 [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

Predecessor Auditor's Report Reissued

.71

Before reissuing (or consenting to the reuse of) a report previously issued on the financial statements of a prior period, when those financial statements are to be presented on a comparative basis with audited financial statements of a subsequent period, a predecessor auditor should consider whether his or her previous report on those statements is still appropriate. Either the current form or manner of presentation of the financial statements of the prior period or one or more subsequent events might make a predecessor auditor's previous report inappropriate. Consequently, a predecessor auditor should (a) read the financial statements of the current period, (b) compare the prior-period financial statements that he or she reported on with the financial statements to be presented for comparative purposes, and (c) obtain representation letters from management of the former client and from the successor auditor. The representation letter from management of the former client should state (a) whether any information has come to management's attention that would cause them to believe that any of the previous representations should be modified, and (b) whether any events have occurred subsequent to the balance-sheet date of the latest prior-period financial statements reported on by the predecessor auditor that would require adjustment to or disclosure in those financial statements. fn 28 The representation letter from the successor auditor should state whether the successor's audit revealed any matters that, in the successor's opinion, might have a material effect on, or require disclosure in, the financial statements reported on by the predecessor auditor. Also, the predecessor auditor may wish to consider the matters described in section 543, Part of Audit Performed by Other Independent Auditors, paragraphs .10 through .12. However, the predecessor auditor should not refer in his or her reissued report to the report or work of the successor auditor. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. As amended, effective for reports reissued on or after June 30, 1998, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 85.]

.72

A predecessor auditor who has agreed to reissue his or her report may become aware of events or transactions occurring subsequent to the date of his or her previous report on the financial statements of a prior period that may affect his or her previous report (for example, the successor auditor might indicate in the response that certain matters have had a material effect on the prior-period financial statements reported on by the predecessor auditor). In such circumstances, the predecessor auditor should make inquiries and perform other procedures that he or she considers necessary (for example, reviewing the working papers of the successor auditor as they relate to the matters affecting the prior-period financial statements). The auditor should then decide, on the basis of the evidential matter obtained, whether to revise the report. If a predecessor auditor concludes that the report should be revised, he or she should follow the guidance in paragraphs .68, .69, and .73 of this section. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

[The following paragraph is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

.73

A predecessor auditor's knowledge of the current affairs of his former client is obviously limited in the absence of a continuing relationship. Consequently, when reissuing the report on prior-period financial statements, a predecessor auditor should use the date of his or her previous report to avoid any implication that he or she has examined any records, transactions, or events after that date. If the predecessor auditor revises the report or if the financial statements are adjusted, he or she should dual-date the report. (See section 530, Dating of the Independent Auditor's Report, paragraph .05.) [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995.]

Predecessor Auditor's Report Not Presented

.74

[The following paragraph is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the paragraph effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

If the financial statements of a prior period have been audited by a predecessor auditor whose report is not presented, the successor auditor should indicate in the introductory paragraph of his or her report (a) that the financial statements of the prior period were audited by another auditor,fn 29 (b) the date of his or her report, (c) the type of report issued by the predecessor auditor, and (d) if the report was other than a standard report, the substantive reasons therefor.fn 30 An example of a successor auditor's report when the predecessor auditor's report is not presented is shown below:

Independent Auditor's Report

We have audited the balance sheet of ABC Company as of December 31, 20X2, and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the year then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit. The financial statements of ABC Company as of December 31, 20X1, were audited by other auditors whose report dated March 31, 20X2, expressed an unqualified opinion on those statements.

[Same second paragraph as the standard report]

In our opinion, the 20X2 financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of ABC Company as of December 31, 20X2, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

If the predecessor auditor's report was other than a standard report, the successor auditor should describe the nature of and reasons for the explanatory paragraph added to the predecessor's report or the opinion qualification. Following is an illustration of the wording that may be included in the successor auditor's report:

. . . were audited by other auditors whose report dated March 1, 20X2, on those statements included an explanatory paragraph that described the change in the Company's method of computing depreciation discussed in Note X to the financial statements.

If the financial statements have been adjusted, the introductory paragraph should indicate that a predecessor auditor reported on the financial statements of the prior period before the adjustments. In addition, if the successor auditor is engaged to audit and applies sufficient procedures to satisfy himself or herself as to the appropriateness of the adjustments, he or she may also include the following paragraph in the auditor's report:

We also audited the adjustments described in Note X that were applied to restate the 20X1 financial statements. In our opinion, such adjustments are appropriate and have been properly applied.

[Paragraph renumbered and amended, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

Effective Date and Transition

.75

This section is effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996. Earlier application of the provisions of this section is permissible. [Paragraph renumbered and amended, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

.76

An auditor who previously included an uncertainties explanatory paragraph in a report should not repeat that paragraph and is not required to include an emphasis paragraph related to the uncertainty in a reissuance of that report or in a report on subsequent periods' financial statements, even if the uncertainty has not been resolved. If the auditor decides to include an emphasis paragraph related to the uncertainty, the paragraph may include an explanation of the change in reporting standards. [fn 31] [Paragraph renumbered and amended, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79.]

Footnotes (AU Section 508 — Reports on Audited Financial Statements):

fn * This section has been revised to reflect the conforming changes necessary due to the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93.

fn 1 An audit, for purposes of this section, is defined as an examination of historical financial statements performed in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards in effect at the time the audit is performed. Generally accepted auditing standards include the ten standards as well as the Statements on Auditing Standards that interpret those standards. In some cases, regulatory authorities may have additional requirements applicable to entities under their jurisdiction and auditors of such entities should consider those requirements.

[fn 2] [Footnote deleted]

fn 3 This section does not require a title for an auditor's report if the auditor is not independent. See section 504, Association With Financial Statements, for guidance on reporting when the auditor is not independent.

fn 4 In some instances, a document containing the auditor's report may include a statement by management regarding its responsibility for the presentation of the financial statements. Nevertheless, the auditor's report should state that the financial statements are management's responsibility.

fn 5 Section 411, The Meaning of Present Fairly in Conformity With Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, paragraphs .03 and .04, discuss the auditor's evaluation of the overall presentation of the financial statements. [As amended, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after June 30, 2001, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93.]

fn 6 A U.S. auditor also may be engaged to report on the financial statements of a U.S. entity that have been prepared in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in another country. In those circumstances, the auditor should refer to the guidance in section 534, Reporting on Financial Statements Prepared for Use in Other Countries. [Footnote added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after June 30, 2001 by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93.]

fn 7 For guidance on dating the auditor's report, see section 530, Dating of the Independent Auditor's Report. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 8 If statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows are presented on a comparative basis for one or more prior periods, but the balance sheet(s) as of the end of one (or more) of the prior period(s) is not presented, the phrase "for the years then ended" should be changed to indicate that the auditor's opinion applies to each period for which statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows are presented, such as "for each of the three years in the period ended [date of latest balance sheet]." [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 9 Unless otherwise required by the provisions of this section, an explanatory paragraph may precede or follow the opinion paragraph in the auditor's report. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 10 See footnote 3. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 11Section 341, The Auditor's Consideration of an Entity's Ability to Continue as a Going Concern, describes the auditor's responsibility to evaluate whether there is substantial doubt about the entity's ability to continue as a going concern for a reasonable period of time and, when applicable, to consider the adequacy of financial statement disclosure and to include an explanatory paragraph in the report to reflect his or her conclusions. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 12 The issuance of an accounting pronouncement that requires use of a new accounting principle, interprets an existing principle, expresses a preference for an accounting principle, or rejects a specific principle is sufficient justification for a change in accounting principle, as long as the change in accounting principle is made in accordance with the hierarchy of generally accepted accounting principles. See FASB Statement 154, paragraph 14.

fn 13 The directions in paragraphs .68-.69 apply when comparative financial statements are presented and the opinion on the prior-period financial statements differs from the opinion previously expressed.

fn 14 Circumstances such as the timing of the work may make it impossible for the auditor to accomplish these procedures. In this case, if the auditor is able to satisfy himself or herself as to inventories or accounts receivable by applying alternative procedures, there is no significant limitation on the scope of the work, and the report need not include a reference to the omission of the procedures or the use of alternative procedures. It is important to understand, however, that section 331, Inventories, states that "it will always be necessary for the auditor to make, or observe, some physical counts of the inventory and apply appropriate tests of intervening transactions." [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

[The following footnote is effective for audits of fiscal years beginning on or after December 15, 2010. See PCAOB Release No. 2010-004. For audits of fiscal years beginning before December 15, 2010, click here.]

fn 15 In this context, practicable means that the information is reasonably obtainable from management's accounts and records and that providing the information in the report does not require the auditor to assume the position of a preparer of financial information. For example, if the information can be obtained from the accounts and records without the auditor substantially increasing the effort that would normally be required to complete the audit, the information should be presented in the report.

fn 16 See footnote 15. [Paragraph renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 17 Because this paragraph included in the example presented contains all of the information required in an explanatory paragraph on consistency, a separate explanatory paragraph (following the opinion paragraph) as required by paragraphs .17A thorough .17E of this section is not necessary in this instance. A separate paragraph that identifies the change in accounting principle would be required if the substance of the disclosure did not fulfill the requirements outlined in these paragraphs. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 18 See footnote 15. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No 93, October 2000.]

[The following footnote is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the footnote effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

fn 19 When the auditor expresses an adverse opinion, he or she should also consider the need for an explanatory paragraph under the circumstances identified in paragraph .11, subsection (b), (c), (d), and (e) of this section. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

[The following footnote is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the footnote effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

fn 20 Section 504, Association With Financial Statements, paragraph .05, provides guidance to an accountant who is associated with the financial statements of a public entity, but has not audited such statements. [Footnote renumbered and amended, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000. Footnote revised, November 2002, to reflect conforming changes necessary due to the issuance of Statement on Standards for Accounting and Review Services No. 9.]

fn 21 The wording in the first paragraph of the auditor's standard report is changed in a disclaimer of opinion because of a scope limitation. The first sentence now states that "we were engaged to audit" rather than "we have audited" since, because of the scope limitation, the auditor was not able to perform an audit in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards. In addition, the last sentence of the first paragraph is also deleted, because of the scope limitation, to eliminate the reference to the auditor's responsibility to express an opinion. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 22 A continuing auditor is one who has audited the financial statements of the current period and of one or more consecutive periods immediately prior to the current period. If one firm of independent auditors merges with another firm and the new firm becomes the auditor of a former client of one of the former firms, the new firm may accept responsibility and express an opinion on the financial statements for the prior period(s), as well as for those of the current period. In such circumstances, the new firm should follow the guidance in paragraphs .65 through .69 and may indicate in its report or signature that a merger took place and may name the firm of independent auditors that was merged with it. If the new firm decides not to express an opinion on the prior-period financial statements, the guidance in paragraphs .70 through .74 should be followed. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 23An updated report on prior-period financial statements should be distinguished from a reissuance of a previous report (see section 530, Dating of the Independent Auditor's Report, paragraphs .06 through .08), since in issuing an updated report the continuing auditor considers information that he or she has become aware of during his or her audit of the current-period financial statements (see paragraph .68) and because an updated report is issued in conjunction with the auditor's report on the current-period financial statements. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 24 A continuing auditor need not report on the prior-period financial statements if only summarized comparative information of the prior period(s) is presented. For example, entities such as state and local governmental units frequently present total-all-funds information for the prior period(s) rather than information by individual funds because of space limitations or to avoid cumbersome or confusing formats. Also, not-for-profit organizations frequently present certain information for the prior period(s) in total rather than by net asset class. In some circumstances, the client may request the auditor to express an opinion on the prior period(s) as well as the current period. In those circumstances, the auditor should consider whether the information included for the prior period(s) contains sufficient detail to constitute a fair presentation in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. In most cases, this will necessitate including additional columns or separate detail by fund or net asset class, or the auditor would need to modify his or her report. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000. Revised, April 2002, to reflect conforming changes necessary due to the issuance of FASB Statement No. 117.]

[The following footnote is effective November 15, 2008. See PCAOB Release No. 2008-001 (January 29, 2008). For the footnote effective before November 15, 2008, click here.]

fn 25 It is assumed that the independent auditor has been able to satisfy himself or herself as to the consistency of application of generally accepted accounting principles. See PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 6, Evaluating Consistency of Financial Statements, for a discussion of consistency. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995; the former footnote 29 has been deleted and subsequent footnotes renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 26 See footnote 17. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 27 It is recognized that there may be reasons why a predecessor auditor's report may not be reissued and this section does not address the various situations that could arise. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 28 See section 333, Management Representations, appendix C [paragraph .18], "Illustrative Updating Management Representation Letter." [Footnote added, effective for reports reissued on or after June 30, 1998, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 85. Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 29 The successor auditor should not name the predecessor auditor in his or her report; however, the successor auditor may name the predecessor auditor if the predecessor auditor's practice was acquired by, or merged with, that of the successor auditor. [Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 85, November 1997. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

fn 30 If the predecessor's report was issued before the effective date of this section and contained an uncertainties explanatory paragraph, a successor auditor's report issued or reissued after the effective date hereof should not make reference to the predecessor's previously required explanatory paragraph. [Footnote added, effective for reports issued or reissued on or after February 29, 1996, by Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79. Footnote renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 85, November 1997. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

[fn 31] [Footnote renumbered and deleted by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 79, December 1995. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 85, November 1997. Footnote subsequently renumbered by the issuance of Statement on Auditing Standards No. 93, October 2000.]

Copyright © 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Inc.